At the superior end of the esophagus, the superior esophageal sphincter is a thickened ring of smooth muscle marking the area where the esophagus and the pharynx meet.
The superior esophageal sphincter is a thickened ring of smooth muscle that marks the area where the esophagus and the pharynx meet. It is formed by the circular smooth muscle that encircles the junction of the two organs and the longitudinal smooth muscle fibers that run down the length of the esophagus.
The sphincter serves a vital role in the digestion process, as it prevents food from entering the lungs and airways. The muscular ring is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, which is responsible for regulating the opening and closing of the sphincter.
This helps to ensure that food passes into the stomach and not into the lungs or airways. Additionally, the sphincter can help to regulate the speed of digestion, as it can contract and relax to regulate the speed of food passing through the esophagus.
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What happened to the deer population since the wolves have returned?
Answer:
They were eaten by them (wolves).
Explanation:
According to the food chain, wolves eat deers, therefore the deer population will decrease. But that isnt the case, it can be balanced or not. Balanced is when there is an equal amount of animals, in the food chain. and the vice versa for not.
the long snout of the giant anteater, myrmecophaga tridactyla, of south america, and the echidna, tachyglossus aculeatus, of australia, are animals of different evolutionary lineages that are both adapted to eating ants. this is an example of multiple choice selective breeding. anatomical homology. convergent evolution. artificial selection. heterologous traits.
The long snout of the giant anteater, myrmecophaga tridactyla, of south america, and the echidna, tachyglossus aculeatus, of australia, are animals of different evolutionary lineages that are both adapted to eating ants. This is an example of convergent evolution.
Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species develop similar characteristics due to facing analogous environmental challenges or occupying similar ecological niches.
In this case, the long snout of both the giant anteater and the echidna is a shared adaptation for efficiently feeding on ants, which is their primary food source. It is important to note that this is not a result of selective breeding, anatomical homology, artificial selection, or heterologous traits.
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Assigned in class: Students will research and create their own experiment. Students must follow the 7 steps of the scientific method. 1. Observe
2. Ask Question
3. Hypothesize
4. Test
5. Analyze results
6. Conclusion
7. Repeat and revise
Make sure to include your independent variable, dependent variable and control group separately from the steps. Hint: A good idea would be to follow an experiment from Mythbusters, or other similar shows
The experiment titled "The Effect of Music on Plant Growth" follows the scientific method by observing a phenomenon, asking a question, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, analyzing results, drawing a conclusion, and suggesting further investigation.
Title: The Effect of Music on Plant Growth
Step 1: Observe - Plants growing near a speaker seem to grow towards the sound, while plants in a silent environment don't seem to have a particular direction of growth.To know more about "Environment" refer here:
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What is the relationship between an organisms fundamental niche and it’s realized niche
An organism's fundamental niche is the entire range of environmental conditions in which it can potentially survive and reproduce without any interference from other species.
On the other hand, an organism's realized niche is the actual set of environmental conditions in which it lives, taking into account the effects of other biotic and abiotic factors that limit its distribution and behavior.
The realized niche is often smaller than the fundamental niche due to competition, predation, disease, and other factors.
When multiple species coexist in the same habitat, they often partition resources and niche space to minimize competition, resulting in niche differentiation and specialization.
Thus, an organism's realized niche represents the unique role that it plays in the ecosystem and the specific adaptations that it has evolved to survive in its particular ecological niche.
Understanding the relationship between an organism's fundamental and realized niches is important in predicting how it might respond to environmental changes or interactions with other species.
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Evaluate the model. what parts would you change in the model to make it represent this cycle correctly?
Kurt Lewin developed a change model involving three steps: unfreezing, changing and refreezing. For Lewin, the process of change entails creating the perception that a change is needed, then moving toward the new, desired level of behavior and, finally, solidifying that new behavior as the normal.
In order to evaluate the model and make changes to accurately represent the cycle, there are a few key steps that should be taken. First, it is important to thoroughly review and analyze the model, including its assumptions, inputs, outputs, and overall structure. This will help to identify any areas where the model may be inaccurate or incomplete, and where adjustments may be needed.
One potential change that could be made to improve the accuracy of the model would be to incorporate additional data sources and information into the model. This could include data on factors such as market trends, consumer behavior, or regulatory changes, which could impact the cycle and its various stages.
Another possible change would be to adjust the parameters and variables within the model to better reflect the specific characteristics of the cycle being modeled. This could involve tweaking variables such as timeframes, cost structures, or resource allocation, in order to more accurately represent the underlying processes and dynamics at play.
Overall, evaluating and adjusting the model in this way requires careful attention to detail, a deep understanding of the cycle being modeled, and a willingness to revise and refine the model over time in response to new information and changing circumstances.
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As you can see from this activity, the immune system is very complex and is made of many components. In this section, place each immune component in the appropriate bin
In this part, place every resistant part in the suitable canister first: Second: Sebum (oil) and sweat Third: NK cells and fever: T and B Lymphocytes.
The immune system's main components are The white blood cells: White blood cells look for, attack, and kill germs to keep you healthy, acting as an army against viruses and bacteria. White platelets are a critical piece of your insusceptible framework.
Safe cells create from immature microorganisms in the bone marrow and become various sorts of white platelets. Dendritic cells, natural killer cells, lymphocytes (B and T cells), neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells are among these.
The first involves effector cells that have already been activated. The second includes proficient phagocytes (NK cells). The final one is flexible; Clonal expansion occurs in B and T lymphocytes.
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Q- As you can see from this activity, the immune system is very complex and is made of many components. In this section, place each immune component in the appropriate bin.
As you can see from this activity, the immune system is very complex and is made of many components. In this section, place each immune component in the appropriate bin.
In this part, place every resistant part in the suitable canister first: Second: Sebum (oil) and sweat Third: NK cells and fever: T and B Lymphocytes.
The immune system's main components are The white blood cells: White blood cells look for, attack, and kill germs to keep you healthy, acting as an army against viruses and bacteria. White platelets are a critical piece of your insusceptible framework.
Safe cells create from immature microorganisms in the bone marrow and become various sorts of white platelets. Dendritic cells, natural killer cells, lymphocytes (B and T cells), neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, mast cells, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells are among these.
The first involves effector cells that have already been activated. The second includes proficient phagocytes (NK cells). The final one is flexible; Clonal expansion occurs in B and T lymphocytes.
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PLEASE HELP _____a_____ DNA is found in the nucleus, is _____b_____ in shape, and can be linked to a ____c_____. _____d_____DNA is found in the mitochondria, is _____e_____ in shape, and can be linked to a _____f______
Genome DNA is found in the nucleus, is Double-stranded in shape, and can be linked to a Variety of traits and diseases . Mitochondrial DNA is found in the mitochondria, is Circular in shape, and can be linked to a Maternal inheritance
Genomic DNA is the genetic material found in the nucleus of a cell. It is double-stranded and contains all the genetic information that determines an organism's traits and susceptibility to certain diseases.
Mitochondrial DNA, on the other hand, is found in the mitochondria and is circular in shape. It is inherited exclusively from the mother, as the egg cell provides the majority of the cytoplasm and organelles to the developing embryo.
Mitochondrial DNA is important for energy production and can be linked to various mitochondrial disorders. Mutations in mitochondrial DNA can result in a variety of health issues, including muscle weakness, neurological problems, and organ failure.
Understanding the differences between genomic and mitochondrial DNA is essential for studying genetics and developing treatments for genetic diseases.
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When a species no longer exists in a specific
portion of their range but can be found
elsewhere, it is called
A. extinction
B. speciation
C. extirpation
D. hybridization
Answer:
The answer would be extirpation.
Explanation:
The term for when a species no longer exists in a specific portion of their range but can be found elsewhere is extirpation.
If sue walks home, what is her displacement if the cinema is the origin? assume the positive direction is to the right.
Sue's displacement if the cinema is the origin would be the straight-line distance between the cinema (the origin) and her final position after walking home. The displacement is a vector quantity and is defined as the change in position of an object from its initial position to its final position.
Assuming that Sue walks in a straight line from the cinema and her final position is to the right of the cinema (which is the positive direction), her displacement would be positive.
On the other hand, if her final position is to the left of the cinema, her displacement would be negative. The magnitude of her displacement would be the distance between her final position and the cinema.
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Use the image on the right to answer the following questions. The blue is the water, the red is the solute.
Compared to the inside of the cell, the outside of the cell is .
When comparing solute concentrations between two solutions, the hypotonic solution is the one with the lowest solute concentration. C. Hypotonic. The outside of the cell is hypotonic compared to the inside.
What is an hypotonic solution?The hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solute than another solution, in this case the cell interior. This means that in the cell interior, the solute concentration is higher than outside the cell.
When the cell exterior is the hypotonic solution, through osmosis, water moves toward the hypertonic solution (the cell interior), and keeps doing so until concentrations are equal.
In the exposed image, we can see much more solute molecules inside the cell than outside, which suggests the cell is more concentrated and it is the hypertonic solution.
This leads the cell exterior to be the hypotonic solution. Water moves from the cell exterior to the cell interior.
The correct option is C. Hypotonic. The outside of the cell is hypotonic compared to the inside.
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Complete question
Use the image on the right to answer the following questions. Compared to the inside of the cell, the outside of the cell is
A) hypertonic
B) isotonic
C) hypotonic
Answer:
C. Hypotonic is your answer
Explanation:
got it right
On the diagram below what is the name of region B?
Answer:
C. Parietal lobe
Explanation:
The parietal lobe is at the top region of the brain right behind the frontal lobe (A; the frontal lobe is at the front of the brain) and is for sensory perception/integration (i.e., processing sensory information (touch, taste, smell, temperature, etc.) from the outside world.
Is this a pinnate, palmate or parallel vein
The leaf indicated possesses a pinnate vein.
What is a pinnate vein?A pinnate vein is a type of leaf venation pattern where the veins of the leaf arise from a central midrib and branch repeatedly in a feather-like or pinnate fashion towards the edge of the leaf. In this pattern, the veins are arranged opposite or alternate on either side of the midrib, with each lateral vein giving rise to smaller veins and ultimately terminating in a marginal vein or a toothed edge.
The pinnate venation pattern is found in many types of plants, including ferns, angiosperms, and gymnosperms. Several types of plants have pinnate veins. Some examples include ferns, magnolias, roses, beans, peas, and oak trees. Pinnate venation is a common characteristic among dicot plants.
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Select the statement that is most accurate. (1 point)
OIndividuals compete; species change in genetic makeup.
OIndividuals are adapted or not adapted; species evolve.
O Individuals are fit; species survive.
OIndividuals survive; species are naturally selected.
Statement that is most accurate is : Individuals are adapted or not adapted; species evolve.
What is evolution?Evolution is the process by which species of organisms change over time, resulting in gradual development of new species from existing ones.
This statement highlights two important concepts in evolutionary biology: adaptation and evolution. Adaptation refers to process by which individuals in population become better suited to their environment through natural selection. Individuals that are well adapted are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on their advantageous traits to their offspring.
Over time, as more and more individuals in a population become adapted to their environment, the genetic makeup of the population changes.
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which of the following best describes the importance of the number of amino acid differences indicated in table 1 ? responses they reflect the different environments where the organisms were captured. they reflect the different environments where the organisms were captured. they reflect the number of base pair changes in the dna dna . they reflect the number of base pair changes in the d n a . they reflect random changes due to translation errors. they reflect random changes due to translation errors. they reflect the number of oxygen molecules each hemoglobin molec
The number of amino acid differences between two related proteins is significant because it provides insight into the evolutionary relationship between the organisms that produce them.
Proteins that share a high degree of amino acid sequence similarity are likely to be more closely related evolutionarily than proteins that have a lower degree of sequence similarity. By comparing the amino acid sequences of proteins from different species, scientists can infer the evolutionary history of those species and determine how closely related they are. Additionally, it can have practical applications in fields like medicine, where knowledge of the evolutionary relationships between organisms can inform the development of treatments and vaccines.
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--The complete Question is, What is the significance of the number of amino acid differences between two related proteins and how does it relate to the evolutionary relationship between the organisms that produce them? --
the two types of cells of the nervous system are group of answer choices neurons and muscle cells. motor neurons and sensory neurons. axons and dendrites. neurons and neuroglia. schwann cells and microglia.
The two types of cells in the nervous system are neurons and neuroglia, the correct option is D.
Neurons are the functional units of the nervous system responsible for transmitting and processing information. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons, while the axon transmits signals to other neurons or to muscle cells. Neuroglia, also known as glial cells, support and protect the neurons.
Astrocytes provide nutrients and support to neurons, while oligodendrocytes produce myelin, which insulates axons and speeds up the transmission of signals. Together, neurons and neuroglia form the complex network of the nervous system that allows us to sense and respond to our environment, the correct option is D.
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The complete question is:
The two types of cells of the nervous system are: (group of answer choices)
A) neurons and muscle cells
B) motor neurons and sensory neurons
C) axons and dendrites
D) neurons and neuroglia
E) schwann cells and microglia.
Which example represents the use of modern biotechnology?.
The example that represents the use of modern biotechnology is d) genetic modification. Genetic modification involves altering the genetic makeup of an organism by inserting, deleting, or modifying its DNA.
This process allows scientists to add desirable traits or remove undesirable ones, creating genetically modified organisms (GMOs) with specific characteristics.
Modern biotechnology involves using advanced tools and techniques to study and manipulate biological systems, including DNA sequencing, gene editing, and recombinant DNA technology. Genetic modification is a key application of modern biotechnology and has been used to create GMOs in various fields, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.
Bread making and cheese making are examples of traditional biotechnology, which involves using natural processes to produce food and other products. Selective breeding is also a traditional biotechnology technique used to selectively breed plants and animals with desirable traits.
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Complete question :
Which example represents the use of modern biotechnology?
a) bread making
b) cheese making
c) selective breeding
d) genetic modification
A particular maize plant with a mutation in the allele encoding the large subunit of rubisco is crossed with a plant that contains the normal allele. explain how examination of the offspring will enable a researcher to determine whether the mutant plant contributed the ovule or the pollen to the cross.\
When a maize plant with a mutation in the allele encoding the large subunit of rubisco is crossed with a plant that contains the normal allele, examination of the offspring can enable a researcher to determine which parent contributed the ovule or the pollen to the cross.
By examining the offspring, the researcher can determine if the mutant allele is present in the offspring, and from there, can determine which parent contributed the ovule or the pollen. If the offspring have the mutant allele, then the mutant plant contributed the ovule, as it is the maternal parent, and the allele is inherited through the egg.
If the offspring do not contain the mutant allele, then the mutant plant contributed the pollen, as the allele is not inherited through the sperm. In order to determine the allele present in the offspring, the researcher can use a variety of techniques, such as DNA sequencing, to examine the offspring's genome and determine which alleles are present.
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The species ursus arctos, ursus maritimus, and ursus americanus are all members of the same genus. The classification of the three species supports which statement about them?.
The species Ursus arctos (brown bear), Ursus maritimus (polar bear), and Ursus americanus (American black bear) all belong to the same genus, Ursus. This classification supports the statement that these three species share common ancestry and exhibit similar characteristics.
By being part of the same genus, it indicates that they have evolved from a common ancestor and have undergone speciation due to factors such as geographical isolation, adaptation to different environments, or genetic drift.
Despite the differences in their habitats, appearance, and behavior, these bear species possess some common traits that classify them under the same genus. For instance, they are all large-bodied mammals with stocky limbs, plantigrade feet, and powerful claws. Moreover, they have a keen sense of smell and are omnivorous, consuming both plant and animal matter.
In summary, the classification of Ursus arctos, Ursus maritimus, and Ursus americanus within the same genus supports the idea that they are related and share a common ancestor, despite having evolved distinct traits and adaptations over time. This demonstrates the concept of speciation and the role of evolutionary forces in shaping the diversity of life.
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I need help with filling in the boxes
Just put how each limiting factor can impact the native population
Don’t send the link that just hacks you :/
someone please answer!!!
Limiting factors have a significant impact on a population's ability to survive and thrive. These factors can range from food availability and competition with other species to disease and habitat destruction.
All of these factors can cause a decline in the native population, particularly if they are not addressed in a timely manner.
Food availability is a major limiting factor on a species’ ability to survive. If a species is unable to find enough food, they may not be able to reproduce and their population numbers could decline.
Additionally, competition with other species can limit the availability of resources and lead to a decrease in the native species’ population. Disease can also take a toll on a population, as it can spread quickly and be difficult to control. Finally, habitat destruction can also have a drastic effect on a species’ population, as it can lead to a loss of food sources and suitable habitat for reproduction and growth.
Overall, limiting factors can have a significant impact on native populations, leading to decreased numbers if not addressed appropriately. It is important to take these factors into account when assessing the health of a species, as they can have disastrous effects on the population if not managed properly.
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A drug contains an ionized carboxylate group and shows good activity against its target in in-vitro tests. When in vivo tests were carried out, the drug showed poor activity when it was administered orally, but good activity when it was administered by intravenous injection. The same drug was converted to an ester, but proved inactive in vitro. Despite that, it proved to be active in vivo when it was administered orally. Explain these observations
The ionized carboxylate group in the original drug may have led to poor oral bioavailability due to its inability to cross cell membranes and absorb into the bloodstream.
Converting the drug to an ester may have changed its chemical properties, affecting its activity in vitro. However, the ester may have improved the drug's oral bioavailability by allowing it to pass through cell membranes and enter the bloodstream more easily.
Overall, the differences in activity between in vitro and in vivo tests suggest that factors such as absorption, metabolism, and distribution may play a significant role in the drug's efficacy. Further studies may be needed to optimize the drug's formulation and delivery method for maximum effectiveness.
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Which of these groups of fruits are drupes? Pineapples, mulberries, and figs Oranges, lemons, and limes Plums, apricots, and coconuts Strawberries, blackberries, and raspberries Apples, pears, and quinces
Drupes are a special group of fruits that have a hard outer layer (exocarp) and a fleshy inner layer (mesocarp). The mesocarp encloses a single hard seed. Plums, apricots, and coconuts are all drupes.
Here, correct option is C.
Plums have a single hard seed surrounded by a fleshy inner layer, while apricots and coconuts each have one or two hard seeds surrounded by a fleshy inner layer. Pineapples, mulberries, and figs are also drupes, with pineapples having a single hard seed and figs having several hard seeds surrounded by a fleshy inner layer.
Oranges, lemons, and limes are not drupes as they do not have a single hard seed surrounded by a fleshy inner layer. Strawberries, blackberries, and raspberries are also not drupes as they do not have a single hard seed surrounded by a fleshy inner layer.
Therefore, correct option is C.
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complete question is :
Which of these groups of fruits are drupes?
A. Pineapples, mulberries, and figs Oranges,
B. lemons, and limes
C. Plums, apricots, and coconuts
D. Strawberries, blackberries, and raspberries
E. Apples, pears, and quinces
How many microorganisms could a handful of "rich" soil contain?
5 trillion
5,000
5 million
5 billion
A handful of "rich" soil could contain around 5 billion microorganisms.
How many microorganisms could a handful of "rich" soil contain? The options you've provided are 5 trillion, 5,000, 5 million, and 5 billion.
Soil hosts a quarter of our planet’s biodiversity. Billions upon billions of earthworms, nematodes, insects, fungi, bacteria, and other invertebrates call it home. Just one handful of soil can contain tens of thousands of different organisms.
Therefore, a handful of "rich" soil could contain around 5 billion microorganisms. This number can vary depending on the quality and composition of the soil, but a healthy, rich soil will typically have billions of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and other microscopic life forms.
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What do these two changes have in common?
rust forming on a metal gate
an old sandwich rotting in a trashcan
A. Both are physical changes
B. Both are caused by heating
C. Both are chemical changes
D. Both are caused by cooling
Answer:
Explanation:
Neither of the changes are caused by heating or cooling, so options B and D can be eliminated.
Rust forming on a metal gate is a chemical change, while an old sandwich rotting in a trashcan is also a chemical change.
Therefore, the correct answer is C. Both rust forming on a metal gate and an old sandwich rotting in a trashcan are chemical changes.
1. Two people heterozygous for Tay-Sachs (recessive disease) have two children who are both normal. What are the chances of their third child having Tay-Sachs? What are the chances of their fourth child having Tay-Sachs?
The chances of the third child having Tay-Sachs are: 25%, and the chances of the fourth child having Tay-Sachs are also: 25%.
This is because both parents are heterozygous carriers of Tay-Sachs, meaning they have one normal allele and one mutated allele.
When they have children, each child has a 25% chance of inheriting two copies of the mutated allele, which would result in Tay-Sachs disease.
Each child also has a 50% chance of inheriting one normal allele and one mutated allele, making them a carrier like their parents, and a 25% chance of inheriting two normal alleles, making them completely unaffected.
Since the previous two children were both normal, this does not affect the chances of the third and fourth child having Tay-Sachs, as the inheritance of alleles is independent for each child.
Therefore, the chances of each child having Tay-Sachs are still 25%.
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The Braeburn apple is grown for its burst of sweet and tart flavors when bitten into, and for its firm fruit suitable for shipping. It was
named from the orchard where they were first grown. A chance seedling (young plant) was produced from what was thought to be a
cross-pollination of Granny Smith apples and Lady Hamilton apples. Explain which seeds would most likely reproduce this fruit.
In order to reproduce this fruit, both parent varieties must be present in the orchard. Since the Lady Hamilton apple is a variety of Golden Delicious, the seeds created by cross-pollinating these two apples will most likely produce a Braeburn-type apple.
The seeds produced by the cross-pollination of these two apples will contain a combination of the genetic material from the two parent varieties. This means that the Braeburn apples produced from the seeds will contain characteristics from both the Granny Smith and Lady Hamilton apples.
The seeds may also contain genetic traits from other apples that were grown in the same orchard, resulting in a unique combination of flavors, textures, and colors. In order to ensure that the Braeburn apple is reproduced, it is important to keep the two parent varieties in the orchard and to regularly cross-pollinate the trees.
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Discuss how human impact on the environment that could lead to a change in an organism's dna and alter the growth and reproduction of individuals. please provide an example of an organism.
Answer:
A human impact such as increased land use can lead to changes in different organisms DNA. As we take up more space and destroy increasing numbers of habitats to build infrastructure and places to live for the growing population, organisms are forced to relocate to new habitats and ecosystems. Because of this, there organisms are introduced to a new food web, which can alter how they interact with their environment. If they are competing with another breed of animal who is able to obtain a certain food source and they are not because of a certain feature on their bodies, throughout the process of evolution they could develop that trait that they were missing previously and become more equal on the playing field with the species that had been there long before them.
imagine that cl- ions exist in higher concentration outside a cell than inside, and that the membrane is only permeable to the cl- ions. which one of the following statements is correct? a. at equilibrium, the inside of the cell will be electrically negative with respect to the outside. b. the chemical gradient tends to drive cl- ions out of the cell. c. the electrical gradient tends to drive cl- ions into the cell. d. water molecules will diffuse out of the cell by osmosis. e. none of the above statements is correct.
In this scenario, Cl- ions exist in a higher concentration outside the cell than inside, and the membrane is only permeable to Cl- ions. "At equilibrium, the inside of the cell will be electrically negative with respect to the outside." The correct statement is (a).
When there is a higher concentration of Cl- ions outside the cell, there is a chemical gradient that tends to drive the Cl- ions into the cell. As these negatively charged ions move into the cell, the electrical gradient develops. The inside of the cell becomes increasingly negative with respect to the outside, as more Cl- ions accumulate inside.
As the Cl- ions continue to move into the cell, the electrical gradient will eventually oppose the chemical gradient. At equilibrium, the net movement of Cl- ions cease, and the electrical gradient balances the chemical gradient. At this point, the inside of the cell is electrically negative with respect to the outside.
The other statements are incorrect: (b) the chemical gradient drives Cl- ions into the cell, not out; (c) the electrical gradient opposes the chemical gradient, but does not drive Cl- ions into the cell at equilibrium; (d) water molecules are not mentioned in the scenario and osmosis is not relevant to the question.
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When mendel crosses true-breeding tall plants with true-breeding short plants, all the offspring where tall becaus
select the part whose main job is to give strength and stiffness to a plant cell.
The part of a plant cell that gives strength and stiffness is the cell wall.
The cell wаll is the nonliving cellulosic outer lаyer of the plаnt cells which provides the protection аnd mechаnicаl support it needs. It is аbove the plаsmа membrаne аnd irregulаr in shаpe. It hаs 3 lаyers nаmely primаry, secondаry lаyer, аnd middle lаmellа, mаde of pectin, cellulose, hemicellulose, аnd other minerаls.
The primаry cell wаll is mаinly mаde of cellulose аnd is compаrаtively permeаble аnd thin. The middle lаmellа consists of pectin аnd other substаnces like lignin аnd proteins. In mаture cells, the secondаry wаll forms out of cellulose аnd lignin аnd gives the mаture cells its necessаry rigidity аnd wаterproofing. It is аlso the thickest lаyer of аll of them.
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