Answer:
The correct answer is D.
Artificial selection is the process of selecting and breeding individuals with desirable traits to create a population with those traits. However, for this to work, the desirable traits must already exist in the population, and be heritable. In other words, the traits must be encoded in the DNA of the individuals.
In the case of cows producing their own antibiotics, this trait does not currently exist in the cow population. This means that there is no gene or set of genes that can be selected for to produce cows that produce their own antibiotics.
Options A, B, and C are incorrect because they are not true. Antibiotics are used in veterinary medicine to treat bacterial infections in cows, so it is not the case that antibiotics are used only in humans. The pathway for antibiotic production requires a number of enzymes, but this would not prevent artificial selection from being used. And while cows do not possess the same specialized organs as some other creatures that produce antibiotics, they do possess immune systems that produce a range of antimicrobial peptides, which act like natural antibiotics.
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Which statements describe freshwater sources? Check all that apply.
Rainwater can replace or replenish freshwater sources.
Precipitation, such as rainwater, is the source of freshwater on Earth.
When the amount of surface freshwater increases, so does the amount of groundwater.
Human activity, such as taking a bath, may change the quality of a freshwater resource.
Pollution in lakes does not affect groundwater because the ground acts as a barrier or filter.
Answer:
Statement 2, 4, and 3
Explanation:
Statement 2 is true: precipitation, such as rainwater, is the primary source of freshwater on Earth.
Statement 4 is true: human activity, such as taking a bath, can change the quality of a freshwater resource.
Statement 5 is not true: pollution in lakes can affect groundwater because the ground does not act as a barrier or filter to stop pollution from seeping into the groundwater.
Statement 1 is not true: rainwater alone cannot replace or replenish freshwater sources if there is a long-term drought, as rainwater can be insufficient to offset the loss of freshwater. Statement 3 may be true in areas that have aquifers or shallow groundwater systems, as an increase in surface freshwater may lead to an increase in groundwater recharge. However, this will depend on the specific hydrogeological conditions of the area, so this statement is not universally true.
Answer:
1 2 3 & 4 on edge
Explanation:
picture below⬇️⬇️⬇️⬇️
Why do we dye our gels with Ethidium bromide or Gel Red dyes?
- these dyes stain the double stranded DNA in our gel
- these dyes will stain the proteins in our gel
- these dyes will only stain the single stranded RNAs in our gel
Ethidium bromide or Gel Red dyes are used to dye the gel because: (1) these dyes stain the double stranded DNA in our gel.
Ethidium bromide is the most commonly used fluorescent material in the electrophoretic gels, particularly the agarose gels. The dye needs to be handles as with utmost care because it is a mutagen and may also cause irritation of the mouth, upper respiratory tract, skin, or eyes.
DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid. It is a genetic material in most of the organisms. DNA is a double stranded helical structure joined where the strands are joined together by the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides. The several dyes fit themselves between these base-pairs and this is how the stain becomes visible on the DNA.
Therefore, the correct answer is option 1.
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the genomic differences between individuals in populations result of____
The genomic differences between individuals in populations are due to genetic variation.
What is genomic variation? Genomic variation is the term used to describe differences between the DNA sequences of individuals. Each person has a unique genomic sequence that is distinct from that of other individuals because of genetic variation.
Genetic variation is one of the most important factors in evolution, as it is responsible for the differences between organisms that allow for natural selection to occur. It can also be used to identify individuals or groups based on their genetic profiles.
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the upper abdominal cavity and contents are supplied with blood by an aorta. what major branch of this structure divides into the artery that supplies the urinary bladder?
The aorta divides into two main branches: the descending thoracic aorta and the abdominal aorta. The abdominal aorta gives rise to several major branches, including the superior mesenteric artery, the inferior mesenteric artery, and the celiac artery.
The artery that supplies the urinary bladder is called the vesical artery, which arises from the anterior division of the internal iliac artery. The internal iliac artery is a branch of the common iliac artery, which is formed by the bifurcation of the abdominal aorta into the left and right common iliac arteries. Therefore, the major branch of the abdominal aorta that ultimately gives rise to the vesical artery is the common iliac artery.
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if a fish wants to move upwards in the water it would: group of answer choices pump more air into its swim bladder to make itself more dense pump more air into its swim bladder to make itself less dense pump air out of its swim bladder to make itself more dense pump air out of its swim bladder to make itself less dense
The most common way for a fish to move upwards in the water is to pump air out of its swim bladder. The swim bladder is an internal organ that helps the fish maintain its buoyancy. By pumping air out of the swim bladder, the fish can make itself less dense, allowing it to become more buoyant and rise in the water.
This process is known as "buoyancy control," and it helps the fish conserve energy when moving through the water. Additionally, some fish may also choose to pump more air into their swim bladder to make themselves more dense, but this is less common. By controlling their buoyancy, fish are able to move up and down in the water with ease and conserve energy while doing so.
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In the Hershey-Chase experiment, what was labeled by growing bacteriophage in 32P-containing medium?A DNAB proteinsC RNAD lipidsE ghost phage particles
In the Hershey-Chase experiment, bacteriophages were used to investigate whether DNA or protein was the genetic material that is transmitted from one generation to another.
The researchers grew bacteriophages in a medium containing radioactive phosphorus-32 (32P) and another group in a medium containing radioactive sulfur-35 (35S). 32P labels DNA and 35S labels protein. The bacteriophages were then used to infect bacterial cells. After infection, the bacteriophages were separated from the bacterial cells by centrifugation. The results showed that when the bacteriophages were grown in 32P-containing medium, the radioactivity was found inside the bacterial cells, indicating that the DNA of the bacteriophage was injected into the cell during infection. However, when the bacteriophages were grown in 35S-containing medium, the radioactivity was found in the supernatant, indicating that the protein coat of the bacteriophage remained outside the cell. Therefore, the 32P was labeled in the DNA of the bacteriophage during the Hershey-Chase experiment, which provided strong evidence that DNA is the genetic material that is transmitted from one generation to another.
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how does Genetic diversity happen
Answer:
Genetic diversity occurs when mutations create new alleles over time.
Explanation:
Answer:
Genetic diversity happens when mutations create new alleles over a period of time.
What is genetic diversity?
Genetic diversity in a very simple term is the natural variation that exists within the individuals of an species.
The first rule of Darwin's theory says, there is a natural variation. Leaving apart identical twin cases, no 2 individuals of the population are exactly similar, no matter how close they are. There are two factors that are responsible for this variation :
Phenotypic factors: the external factors like food, climate, the way of nurturing etc. These variations are not inheritable.Genotypic factors: these characters are gene governed and are inheritable.The variations because of (2) are called “genetic diversity” of a particular species. The rich genetic diversity is of immense use to us and also to nature. Development of improved plants or race improvisation of domestic animals is possible through this.
We are fast narrowing down the global natural genetic diversity of animals and plants by our un mindful modernization activities. The loss is great and unrepairable.
There are how many chromosomes in a human zygote? a. 42 b. 46 c. 48 d. 64
A human zygote contains 46 chromosomes.
A diploid zygote is created during sexual reproduction when a haploid sperm cell, which has 23 chromosomes, combines with an egg cell, which also has 23 chromosomes. Two sets of 23 chromosomes, one inherited from the mother and one from the father, make up the zygote's full complement of 46 chromosomes.
A human zygote has 46 chromosomes total, including one pair of sex chromosomes and 22 pairs of autosomes (non-sex chromosomes). The sex chromosomes—females have two X chromosomes and males have one X and one Y chromosome—determine the biological sex of the person.
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process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments is called?
The process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments is called convergent evolution.
Evolution is the process by which the inherited traits of biological populations change over successive generations. These traits are the expressions of genes, which are passed down through reproduction from parent to offspring.
The convergent evolution is the process by which organisms adapt to similar environments, creating analogous structures and features, despite not being genetically related.
When organisms with a different lineage independently evolve similar structures, it is known as convergent evolution.
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which solutes are reabsorbed from the nephron loop? select all that apply.
a) sodium loops
b) glucose and amino acids
c) chloride
d) water
e) potassium ions
The solutes which are reabsorbed from the nephron loop are sodium ions, chloride and potassium ions that is option A, C and E.
The million nephrons that make up the human kidney, an intricate and highly vascular organ, serve as its filtering units. Each one removes water and other substances from the blood as it travels through it and into the hollow between the cup's walls. The second piece resembles a U-shaped loop that carries the filtered fluid all the way to the medulla.
The process by which the nephron takes water and solutes from the tubular fluid (pre-urine) and returns them to the circulating blood is known as reabsorption or tubular reabsorption in the field of renal physiology. The reason it is called reabsorption and not absorption is because these substances have already been absorbed (especially in the intestines) and the body is reclaiming them from a postglomerular fluid stream that is about to turn into urine.
If they are not reabsorbed from the tubule into the peritubular capillaries, they will soon be lost to the urine. The Na+/K+ATPase in the basolateral membrane of the epithelial cells causes sodium to be transported from the lumen into the circulation in this manner.
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If a recombinant gene is inserted into an animal embryo the anima should become sterile as an adult; only the sperm and egg cells should contain copy of the recombinant gene_ the protein encoded by the recombinant gene will be produced in all cells every cell should contain copy of the recombinant gene.
If recombinant gene is inserted into animal embryo, animal should become sterile as an adult : False ; Only the sperm and egg cells should contain copy of recombinant gene : False ; Gene will be produced in all cells every cell should contain copy of recombinant gene : True.
What is recombinant gene?Recombinant DNA molecules are the DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination that bring together genetic materials from multiple sources and creating sequences that would not be found in genome otherwise.
When recombinant gene is inserted into an animal embryo, animal may or may not become sterile as an adult, depending on various factors such as nature of the gene, the location of its insertion, and effect of the gene on the animal's reproductive system.
When a gene is inserted into embryo, it becomes a part of the animal's genome and is present in all cells of the animal, including somatic cells (i.e., non-reproductive cells) as well as germ cells (i.e., sperm and egg cells). Therefore, protein encoded by recombinant gene will be produced in all cells of the animal and every cell should contain a copy of recombinant gene.
Once the recombinant gene is incorporated into animal's DNA, it will be transcribed and translated into protein in all of its cells.
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you found out that a cell synthesizes an enzyme that works in cold water for a laundry additive. you know that you can enhance the effectiveness of this enzyme by changing one amino acid. how would you do it? group of answer choices irradiating the cells. enrichment selective breeding. site-directed mutagenesis selection
To enhance the effectiveness of the enzyme synthesized by the cell that works in cold water for a laundry additive by changing one amino acid, site-directed mutagenesis would be the appropriate method to use.
Site-directed mutagenesis is a method for altering a gene's DNA sequence to produce a desired protein with different characteristics. This method entails changing the amino acid sequence of the resultant protein by specifically altering the DNA sequence of the gene encoding the enzyme.
In this instance, adding a mutation at the DNA level could alter the amino acid sequence of the enzyme to improve its efficacy. The mutation would alter the amino acid sequence of the enzyme, possibly enhancing its activity in cold water.
Site-directed mutagenesis is a potent method that enables scientists to make exact alterations to DNA sequences, enabling the precise manipulation of the properties of the resulting protein.
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the ____________________ perform photosynthesis, have chlorophyll, and produce oxygen as a by-product.
The plants perform photosynthesis, have chlorophyll, and produce oxygen as a by-product. The process of photosynthesis in plants is the process of converting light energy into chemical energy.
During this process, plants use carbon dioxide and water to synthesize glucose (a type of sugar). Oxygen is also released as a by-product of photosynthesis. Oxygen is then used by living organisms to produce energy through cellular respiration.
Plants contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which is the primary pigment involved in photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is located in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Chloroplasts are organelles that contain chlorophyll, along with other pigments and enzymes required for photosynthesis.
Plants are the primary producers in most ecosystems. They are also the foundation of the food chain, as they provide food for herbivorous animals (which in turn are preyed upon by carnivorous animals). Plants are essential to the survival of most living organisms on Earth.
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What is the advantage of a signaling cascade?
a golden retriever shows an extremely rare black marking on a portion of the face. assume that the golden color is the result of the ee genotype as with the yellow labradors. the best genetic explanation for the black marking is
The coat colour of labrador retrievers is polygenic, or determined by multiple genes. The gene for black or chocolate is epistatic to the gene for golden colour.
What a golden retriever's genetic makeup?All Golden Retrievers have the recessive gene pair ee at location E, which causes their red/yellow colouring. Regardless of whether a person is black or chocolate, yellow is located in a completely different location on the chromosome. The ability to disperse dark pigment in the coat is controlled by the gene pair at site E.
Do Golden Retrievers have a black gene?Because the golden colour of purebred golden retrievers is the product of two recessive genes, they cannot be black.
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Animals of one common phylum are NOT bilaterians but are eumetazoans. What phylum is it? A. Chordata B. Annelida C. Porifera D. Cnidaria.
Animals of one common phylum that are NOT bilaterians but are eumetazoans are Porifera. The correct answer is Option C.
What is Porifera?Porifera is a phylum of sponges, which is a class of multicellular organisms that is diverse in size and shape. Sponges are sedentary creatures that dwell in water, and their bodies contain numerous pores and channels.
The features of the phylum Porifera include being multicellular, lack of organs and tissues, the presence of a network of pores and channels through which water is passed for feeding, and an asymmetrical body plan. The Porifera phylum includes all sponges that live in both marine and freshwater habitats.
The body plan of sponges is a radially symmetrical or asymmetrical sack, with water passing through the channels and pores of the body. Sponges are the most primitive type of animal, and they lack the complex organ system and specialized cells that are found in more advanced animals such as mammals, reptiles, or birds. Sponges have a simple immune system that can recognize foreign cells and aid in digestion.
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Why might different areas of the brain be more active than others at certain times?
Answer:
The brain is a complex organ that controls all our bodily functions and processes information from the world around us. At any given time, different areas of the brain may be more active than others, depending on the task at hand. This is because each area of the brain is responsible for a specific function, such as movement, language, memory, and emotion.
For example, when we are talking to someone, the language centers in our brain become more active as we process and understand what they are saying. Likewise, when we engage in physical activity such as running or dancing, the motor cortex in our brain becomes more active to control our movements.
Other factors that may affect which areas of the brain are more active include mood, attention span, and even sleep patterns. For example, during REM sleep (the sleep phase in which we dream), certain areas of the brain associated with memory consolidation become more active.
In summary, different areas of the brain may be more active at certain times than others due to their specialized functions and the way they respond to external stimuli. Understanding these patterns can help us better understand how our brains work and how we can optimize their performance.
Brain please
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What is the key characteristic of a transformed cell?A) has acquired tumor-forming propertiesB) is producing toxins affecting neighboring cellsC) is producing budding virusesD) has undergone chromosomal rearrangementsE) is infected with a lytic virus
The key characteristic of a transformed cell is A) has acquired tumor-forming properties.
Normal cells can become transformed by this process, which gives them the capacity to divide uncontrollably and become tumors. Transformed cells are able to evade planned cell death (apoptosis), ignore signals to cease growing, and expand even in the absence of normal growth signals, which are all characteristics of cancer cells.
Changes in genes that regulate cell growth and division, exposure to chemicals or radiation, specific viruses, or other causes can all result in transformation. However, not all altered cells go on to develop tumors; in other cases, additional mutations or alterations to the microenvironment are necessary for the development of malignancies.
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HELP ME PLEASE ILL GIVE 100
Why is the existence of vestigial structures important evidence for evolution?
Vestigial structures are important evidence for evolution because they are remnants of structures that were once useful to an organism's ancestors, but have since become functionless or reduced in size and function in the descendants.
These structures imply that rather than being created in their current form, organisms have evolved over time.
The theory of evolution, which holds that organisms change through time through the process of natural selection, is consistent with the existence of vestigial structures. This idea states that organisms with superior environmental adaptation are more likely to live, procreate, and pass on their advantageous features to their offspring. This process can result in the creation of new structures across many generations as well as the destruction or alteration of old buildings.
Vestigial structures, which were formerly beneficial to an organism's progenitors but are now functionless or smaller in size and function in the descendants, serve as proof of this process.
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What specific cells attack invaders that are "marked for death"?
a
tRNA
b
mHelper cells
c
Killer Bee Cells
d
Killer T-Cells
The specific cells that attack invaders that are "marked for death" are Killer T-Cells. So, option D is correct.
White blood cells referred to as killer T-cells or cytotoxic T-cells are a crucial component of the immune system's response to cancer and infections. They are referred to as "killer" T-cells because they are able to identify and eliminate malignant or contaminated cells in the body.
The bone marrow produces killer T lymphocytes, which then develop in the thymus gland. When they come into contact with an antigen (a molecule on the surface of an infected or malignant cell) that matches their receptor, they become activated. Once activated, they multiply quickly and undergo differentiation to become effector cells, which can either destroy the target cell directly or release cytokines to draw in other immune cells to assist fight the infection or malignancy.
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Which blood vessel empties directly into the superior vena cava?
brachiocephalic vein
The blood vessel that empties directly into the superior vena cava is the brachiocephalic vein. More precisely that is the right brachiocephalic vein.
The brachiocephalic veins are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood from the upper limbs and the head and neck regions to the superior vena cava, which then goes to the heart. Each brachiocephalic vein is formed from the union of the internal jugular vein and the subclavian vein. The brachiocephalic veins then merge to form the superior vena cava, which is a large vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the head, neck, arms, and chest to the right atrium of the heart in humans.
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which of the following is not a function of fat in the human body? fat maintains the integrity of cell membranes.
The correct answer is option D. Fat does not help produce neurotransmitters in the human body.
Fat is a substance that the body can store energy. It can be found in various foods, including fats, butter, oils, and other foods. The body requires fat for insulation and cell function, as well as the creation of various hormones.
Apart from these roles, fat maintains the integrity of cell membranes, produces important hormones such as estrogen and testosterone, and plays a role in blood clotting by activating clotting factors. It also serves as a source of energy and is used to create prostaglandins, which are hormone-like substances that aid in inflammation and blood clotting.
But fat does not play any role in neurotransmitter generation.
The following is not a function of fat in the human body:
A. Fat maintains the integrity of cell membranes.
B. Fat provides insulation and stores energy.
C. Fat helps regulate hormones and metabolism.
D. Fat helps produce neurotransmitters.
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true or false? while laboratory tests to be used in screening programs should ideally be highly accurate, most are likely to yield either false positives or false negatives.
True. While laboratory tests used in screening programs should ideally be highly accurate, most are likely to yield either false positives or false negatives.
False positives occur when a test indicates the presence of a condition or disease when it is not actually present, while false negatives occur when a test indicates the absence of a condition or disease when it is actually present. False positives and false negatives can occur due to a variety of factors, including test sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy, as well as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested.
It is important to minimize the rates of false positives and false negatives in screening tests, as they can lead to unnecessary follow-up testing, treatments, and anxiety in patients, as well as increased healthcare costs. Therefore, it is important to carefully evaluate the performance of screening tests and consider factors such as test accuracy, reliability, and validity when selecting and implementing screening programs.
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the circular arrangement of muscles around an opening that controls the passage of material through the alimentary canal is known as a .
The circular arrangement of muscles around an opening that controls the passage of material through the alimentary canal is known as a sphincter.
Alimentary canal or the digestive tract is a muscular tube which runs from the mouth to the anus. It measures around 9 meters and it is divided into various parts such as esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and an-us.Sphincters: There are several types of sphincters in the human body. A sphincter is a muscle that controls the opening and closing of a tube-like structure. It acts as a valve and helps to regulate the flow of liquids, gases, and other materials in the body.Some of the commonly known sphincters include:Urethral sphincter - It helps in controlling the flow of urine. The urethral sphincter is present in both males and females.An-al sphincter - It helps in controlling the release of feces from the rectum.Oddi sphincter - It controls the flow of bile from the gallbladder into the small intestine.Ureteral sphincter - It controls the flow of urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The alimentary canal is lined with a layer of smooth muscle. These muscles help in pushing food through the canal during digestion. The digestive system uses a combination of circular and longitudinal muscles to move food along the canal. The circular arrangement of muscles around an opening that controls the passage of material through the alimentary canal is known as a sphincter.Learn more about Alimentary canal: https://brainly.com/question/881890
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how do forces change the growth of plants or fungi according to gravitropism?
Gravitropism is the phenomenon where plants or fungi respond to gravitational forces by growing in a particular direction. In the case of plants, gravity causes the roots to grow downwards and the shoots to grow upwards, while in fungi, the hyphae grow towards or away from the gravitational force.
The response of plants and fungi to gravity is mediated by specialized cells called statocytes, which contain starch-filled organelles called amyloplasts. These organelles are sensitive to changes in gravitational force and move to the bottom of the cell under the influence of gravity.
In fungi, the movement of the amyloplasts similarly triggers a signaling cascade that leads to changes in the distribution of growth-promoting factors. In some fungi, the hyphae grow towards the gravitational force, while in others, they grow away from it, depending on the species.
Overall, the response of plants and fungi to gravitational forces is a complex process that involves the coordinated action of various signaling pathways and growth-promoting factors.
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carbohydrates serve two major purposes. these purposes are select one: a. energy and digestion. b. energy and transport. c. energy and structure. d. genetic information and structure.
The two major purposes served by carbohydrates are: c. Energy and structure.
For living things, carbohydrates are their main source of energy. They offer a source of glucose that can be converted into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the main source of energy for cells.
In cells and tissues, carbohydrates also act as structural elements. For instance, cellulose, a carbohydrate, gives plant cell walls structural support, whereas chitin, a carbohydrate, supports the exoskeletons of insects and other arthropods.
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms make up the organic compounds known as carbohydrates. They are categorised according to how many monosaccharide units they contain, which can be anywhere between one and thousands. Simple sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose, which serve as the building blocks for more complex carbohydrates, are examples of monosaccharides.
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what do marine biologists study that relates to food chains?
Marine biologists study a variety of factors related to food chains in marine ecosystems, including the composition and structure of the food web, the interactions between different species in the food chain, and the flow of energy and nutrients through the ecosystem.
Some specific areas of research in marine biology related to food chains include:
Trophic interactions: Marine biologists study the relationships between different organisms in the food web, including predator-prey relationships and symbiotic interactions. Understanding these interactions can provide insights into the dynamics of the food chain and how changes in one species can impact others.Nutrient cycling: Nutrient cycling is the process by which nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are recycled through the food web. Marine biologists study the processes involved in nutrient cycling, including the roles played by different organisms in breaking down and recycling nutrients.Primary production: Primary production refers to the process by which plants and other photosynthetic organisms convert sunlight into energy. Marine biologists study primary production in marine ecosystems, as it forms the basis of the food chain and provides energy for all other organisms in the ecosystem.Fisheries management: Many marine biologists work on fisheries management, which involves understanding the interactions between different species in the food web, as well as the impacts of human activities such as fishing on marine ecosystems. Fisheries management aims to ensure that fisheries are sustainable and that marine ecosystems remain healthy and productive.To know more about Nutrient cycling
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What phenotype would be expected in balanced translocation heterozygotes in the absence of position effects?
a) Normal, because they have a normal amount of genetic material
b) Abnormal, because they lack some genetic material
c) Normal, even though they have too much genetic material
d) Abnormal, because they have too much genetic material
In balanced translocation heterozygotes, Normal phenotype is expected in the absence of position effects.
Balanced translocations arise as a result of a chromosomal rearrangement that causes the swapping of chromosome segments between two different chromosomes. It occurs when two chromosomes have exchanged fragments, but there has been no loss or gain of genetic material. This implies that there is a normal amount of genetic material, but the position of the genes has changed.When there is no positional effect, heterozygotes with balanced translocations are phenotypically normal.
However, when there is a positional effect, the presence of the chromosomal rearrangement causes various phenotypic abnormalities.What is a phenotype?Phenotype refers to the observable physical, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of an organism, which is determined by its genetic makeup (genotype) and the environment in which it lives. The genotype comprises the genetic material that determines the phenotypic characteristics of the organism.
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at what levels does gene regulation occur in bacteria?
Gene regulation in bacteria occurs at both the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels.
At the transcriptional level, gene expression is regulated by controlling the rate of transcription. This can be done through the binding of regulatory molecules to the promoter region of a gene.
At the post-transcriptional level, gene expression is regulated by controlling the stability, translation, and/or processing of the mRNA molecule. This can be done by the binding of regulatory molecules to the mRNA molecule or to its associated proteins.
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